Putting the new ways into practice was more difficult, however. It was only in parts of the land that Ministers were appointed and Superintendents put in place. Even 12 years later there were only 257 Ministers available for more than a thousand parishes.
It was clear that the new system was not a success and at the Convention of Leith in 1572 and at the General Assembly which followed it - with John Knox's support - the Episcopate was restored, although bishops were simply appointed rather than consecrated and were subject to the Assembly.
The twenty years that followed saw division. The bishops only had the support of a section of the Church and were seen as creatures of the Crown. Andrew Melville, Principal of Glasgow University and then of Saint Mary's College, Saint Andrews, was the founding father of Presbyterianism in Scotland. He opposed the policies put forward by the bishops and in the end defeated them.
In 1592 Presbyterianism was formally established in Scotland, although two thirds of the parishes still did not have a Presbyterian minister, and in many parts of Scotland the Reformation had had little effect. (During this time those adhering to the old ways and the Roman Catholic Church continued to worship, openly or secretly depending on local circumstances.)
The titular bishops, although without ecclesiastical power, continued to sit in Parliament and, indeed, by 1600 new 'bishops' (called Commissioners) were being appointed to the vacant sees. The reason was that it was becoming clear to King James VI that the creation of a political power base, able to challenge the throne itself, was the logical conclusion of the development of extreme Presbyterianism. Andrew Melville had called James 'God's silly vassal', and said that there were two kingdoms in Scotland and one was the Kirk, and in this kingdom James could not be a king, or lord, but only a member.
The Restoration of the Episcopacy
When James ascended the English throne, as James I, in 1604 the restoration of full Episcopacy was seen as only being a matter of time. In 1606 the Scottish Parliament removed the restrictions placed on the bishop's office and in the same year Andrew Melville found himself a prisoner in the Tower of London.
In 1610 Episcopacy was restored by the Assembly of Glasgow and within three months three titular bishops - John Spottiswood of Glasgow, Andrew Lamb of Brechin and Gavin Hamilton of Galloway - were consecrated in London by the Bishops of London, Ely, Rochester and Worcester.
The title page of a 1712 reprint of the 1637 Scottish Prayer Book
The struggle between Episcopacy and Presbyterianism, however, continued, and after 28 years the Assembly once more abolished bishops, partly in response to the high-handed actions of King Charles I, who without consultation with the Assembly, or even with all the Bishops, imposed on the Scottish Church a Book of Canons, an Ordinal and finally, in 1637, a new Prayer Book, which had been prepared by John Maxwell, Bishop of Ross, and James Wedderburn, Bishop of Dunblane.
The concept of a Prayer Book was not a new one (The English Prayer Book of Edward VI in 1552 and John Knox's Book of Common Order had been widely used) and the real objection to this one was the method by which it was introduced.
Presbyterian Again
In 1638 the Assembly met in Glasgow, ignored the fact that the Royal Commissioner dissolved it, and went on to depose from the ministry all fourteen bishops (and excommunicate eight of them).
With the removal of King Charles after the Civil War there was the possibility of Presbyterianism becoming the system of Church government in England too, and the Westminster Assembly met between 1643 and 1648 to draw up a common confession and catechism.
The King was executed in 1649 and a rift opened between England and Scotland once more. Charles' son was proclaimed Charles II in Edinburgh and crowned at Scone. Before his coronation, however, he apologised for his father's behaviour and promised to support the Presbyterian government of the Church.
The Scots holding their young King's nose to the grindstone': a cartoon from 1661
England and Scotland were facing each other again and Oliver Cromwell's army defeated the Scots at Dunbar in 1650. General Monk was deputed to rule Scotland and did so with a firm and Puritan hand. In 1653 even the Assembly was disbanded by Colonel Cotterel at the head of a military force.
Restoration Again
The death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658 was followed two years later by the restoration of the monarchy and by the re-establishment of Episcopacy in both England and Scotland. In 1661 the Scots Parliament passed - almost without dissension - the Recissory Act which removed Presbyterian Church government and reverted to the 1637 position.
Of the Bishops appointed in 1637-8 only Thomas Sydserf of Galloway remained alive and he was appointed to the Diocese of Orkney. Four others were consecrated in Westminster Abbey by the Bishops of London, Llandarf, Worcester and Carlisle.
The Restoration brought a change in government but not in the worship of the Parish Churches. No liturgy was introduced, no surplice worn by the clergy and the only distinguishing features from Presbyterian worship was the use of the doxology, the Lord's Prayer and - at Baptism - the Apostles' Creed.
There followed a persecution of those adhering to Presbyterianism. Ministers who would not conform to the Episcopal way were forbidden to exercise their ministry and prevented from living within 20 miles of their former parishes, or even close to any major town.
The 'Grey Mare's Tail' in Dumfries & Galloway, where Convenanters sought refuge from persecution
Harsher and yet more harsh penalties were imposed on these Covenanters and there was increasing violence. The saintly Bishop Robert Leighton of Dunblane attempted to resign in protest but was persuaded to stay on the assurance that more gentle ways would be found.
The Bishop also suggested a system of ecclesiastical government in which the bishops were guided by the majority view of their presbyters but this found no favour with the other bishops. He continued in the role of peacemaker and became Archbishop of Glasgow in 1671, resigning three years later to retire to the more peaceable realm of England.
A way of conciliation was, however, needed and between 1669 and 1672 a hundred and twenty of the dispossessed ministers accepted an olive branch and were allowed to preach in the parishes once more, although they were denounced as backsliders by the others, and when James Sharp, Archbishop of Saint Andrews, was murdered on Magus Moor in 1679 armed rebellion broke out. The rebels achieved a victory over a Government force led by Graham of Claverhouse at Drumclog but the rebellion ended with their defeat at the hands of the Duke of Monmouth at Bothwell Brig.
In 1681 the King's claim to supremacy in ecclesiastical matters was beginning to cause concern and 80 Episcopalian priests resigned in protest. Charles II died in 1685. He had been a secret (or at least private) Roman Catholic for 16 years and he was succeeded by his brother, James II and VII, who made no secret of his Roman Catholicism. The Scots Parliament refused to pass a Bill favouring the Roman Church and the King made the Bill an Act of Council and established the Jesuits at Holyrood anyway. Two years later an Indulgence granted freedom of public worship to all non-conformists - Roman Catholics, Presbyterians as well as Quakers.
However, James's reign was brought to an end by trouble in England. The King commanded that the Declaration of Liberty of Conscience be read in all churches. The Archbishop of Canterbury and seven other English bishops refused and were imprisoned in the Tower of London, charged with seditious libel. Their acquittal was greeted with great rejoicing in the streets and the worried King once more promised to uphold the rights of the Anglican and Episcopal Churches. It was too late, however. William, Prince of Orange, had already landed in Devon at the head of an army and James fled to France in December 1668. The following year he attempted to recover Ireland but was defeated by William at the Battle of the Boyne. He died in 1701.
